Arskovaa grammar

Arskovaa grammar is the set of rules which governs the formation of utterances in Arskovaa. Nominal grammar is characterized by a binary animate-inanimate gender system, an ergative system of case, coexisting plural and singulative number systems, definiteness and classes of possession. Verbal morphology is characterized by nominative-accusative polypersonal agreement, simple binary tense and aspect systems and a robust system of modality and evidentiality. Grammatical information for both nouns and verbs is primarily encoded by affixation. These affixes are usually suffixes, but several prefixes also exist. The allomorphy of these affixes are subject to a set of common rules. Individual affixes may also present additional, idiosyncratic allomorphy. Grammatical information is also carried by auxiliary verb, grammatical particles and adpositions. Syntax is typically head final with SOV word order in most clauses, with key exceptions which instead use VSO order. Word order is also often changed for topicalization. Arskovaa grammar is partially integrated with the language's complex system of honorifics.

Nouns

Animacy

All nouns belong to one of two grammatical genders, animate or inanimate. Which class a noun belongs to affects both its own inflection and that of any verbs which must agree with it. The gender a given noun is assigned is usually based on pure semantics. The majority of animate nouns denote people or animals while most inanimate nouns denote objects. There are however nouns whose class is counter-intuitive. Animacy is also key to the language's system of honorifics. A typically inanimate noun may be treated as animate to express respect and an animate noun may be treated as inanimate to express humility.

Case

The morphosyntactic alignment of case marking in nouns is split-ergative. Which clauses use an absolutive-ergative alignment and which use a nominate-accusative one instead is conditioned by the the type of nominal arguments involved. There are five cases, the absolutive, ergative, genitive, dative and instrumental. Case is indicated by suffixation, except for the absolutive case, which is always unmarked. The suffixes for the remaining four cases are wholly different for animate and inanimate nouns.

	Animate	Inanimate
Absolutive	-Ø	-Ø
Ergative	-å	-i
Genitive	-t	-s
Dative	-a	-y
Instrumental	-xå	-do

The absolutive is the most basic case. It is unmarked for both animate and inanimate nouns and is used as the citation form of nouns. Its primary grammatical functions are marking the sole argument of an intransitive verb and marking the patient of a transitive verb. It is also sometimes used to mark the agent of a transitive verb. This occurs only when the clause's verb is in a direct construction and the agent and patient differ in their relative animacy (see Verbs: Agreement).

The compliment to the absolutive case is the ergative case, marked by the suffix -å for animate nouns and -i for inanimate ones. It is primarily used to mark the agents of transitive verbs, except when the main verb of the clause uses a direct construction and the agent and patient arguments are not equal on the animacy hierarchy. In these cases the absolutive case is used instead.

The genitive case is primarily used to mark possession. Its suffixes are -t for animate nouns and -s for inanimate ones. In modifies the possessor, which is placed before the possessed noun. The same syntax is used to indicate composition, origin or type. The genitive is also used for a number of adpositions. When used with an adposition, the genitive typically assumes an ablative meaning, indicating movement away from a point or the start of some span of time. By metaphorical extension, it may also mark a cause.

The dative case suffixes are closely related to the ergative ones, and under certain conditions are homophonous with them. Both share the idiosyncratic allomorphic pattern of an epenthetic [n] inserted before them when following a vowel. The signature function of the dative case is marking the indirect object of a verb. These verbs are often transitive ones of giving or receiving. In this capacity the dative can also be used to mark the beneficiary of an action who conceptually receives some final product. Intransitive verbs describing emotions or perceptions also have indirect objects. For these the dative marks the perceiver of the emotional or sensory impression. A key extension of this construction is used to describe instances of possession using an existential verb. The dative is also used with some adpositions. When it is, it typically expresses motion towards or along something, the passage of time up to a certain point or an aim or purpose.

The instrumental is marked by -xå for animate nouns and -do for inanimate ones, and has two basic functions. When used with inanimate nouns or some animate nouns, it marks the means of an action. When used with other animate nouns, especially those describing people, it instead usually assumes a comitative meaning, describing in whose company something is done. It is with this sense that the instrumental is used to coordinate animate nouns in place of an independent conjunction. The instrumental also has several additional functions. It is used with a small number of inherently passive verbs to introduce a second argument. The instrumental may also assume a temporal meaning when used with certain nouns describing times, or a locative or ablative one when used with certain adpositions.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives which modify nouns occur not as independent lexical items but as suffixes. There are two types of demonstratives, proximal and distal. The is used for items near the speaker while the distal is used for items by neither the speaker or the addressee. Which demonstrative is appropriate for an item near the addressee depends on the nature of the relation between the speaker and addressee (see Arskovaa honorifics). In the absolutive case animate and inanimate nouns use different suffixes, while the remaining oblique cases use a third set of suffixes. For inanimate nouns in the ergative case, these suffixes wholly replace the normal ergative case suffix.

	Absolutive		Oblique
	Animate	Inanimate
Proximate	-x	-h	-åx
Distal	-f	-t	-uf

The proximate demonstratives also function as definite articles. This use is grammatically obligatory for any definite noun, unless it is marked by another distal or a possessive suffix, or is a proper noun.

Possessives

Nouns which do not bear a demonstrative suffix may bear a possessive suffix instead. Such a suffix indicates a pronominal possessor of the marked noun. Possessive suffixes may only be used in cases of inalienable possession, and are obligatory in all such instances. Items which can be relatively trivially gained and lost may not be inflected for possession. Whether or not a noun meets the appropriate criteria is not lexically fixed, and the absence or presence of a possessive suffix can be used to create meaningful alterations.

ktaṛv	"my fur [as part of my body]"
våx ktah	"my fur [from an animal]"

In cases of alienable possession the only manner in which to indicate ownership is with the genitive case. Any pronominal genitives are typically dropped if a noun is marked for possession. This is not obligatory, and the pronoun may be retained, typically for emphasis. Like the demonstrative suffixes, the first and second person possessive suffixes have special, gender specific forms unique to the absolutive case, and the inanimate ergative case suffix is dropped when the oblique suffix is added. There is no such complication for the third person possessive suffixes.

		Absolutive		Oblique
		Animate	Inanimate
1st Person	Exclusive	-åv	-su	-vå
	Inclusive	-åc	-ic	-cå
2nd Person		-åś	-is	-si
3rdPerson	Animate	-ge
	Inanimate	-do

The number of the possessor is marked simply by vowel length. A short vowel indicates the singular, while a long vowel indicates the plural. The first person inclusive suffixes are an exception. They are necessarily plural, and the vowel used is always short.

Number

There are two systems of grammatical number present in Arskovaa. The dominant of the two is a typically singular-plural system. The singular is unmarked, and the plural is indicated by lengthening the first vowel of the first lexical morpheme in a noun. The second system of marking number in Arskovaa is the collective-singulative. For nouns which fall under this paradigm, the unmarked collective denotes multiple instances of the noun while the marked singulative indicates a single item. The singulative is marked by the suffix -uc. There is no way to predict with absolute certainty which paradigm any given noun will belong to. Collective-singular nouns are usually things which are expected in groups while singular-plural nouns are those which are typically found on their own, or not found in groups significantly often.

Verbs

Infinitive

The infinitive is the basic, citation form of any regular verb. It is marked by the suffix -ok. If the verbal root ends in a vowel, the /o/ is dropped and the allomorph -k is used instead. A verb in the infinitive may not take the full compliment of additional affixes that a finite one can. Non-finite verbs do not carry suffixes for a primary argument, tense, evidentiality or modality.

Agreement

Verbal agreement is polypersonal. The primary verb of a clause must agree with not only its primary absolutive argument but its ergative or secondary absolutive and dative arguments if it has any. This agreement is marked both by a set of suffixes and a set of prefixes.

For intransitive verbs agreement is straightforward. The absolutive argument is marked by suffixation, and if there is a dative argument it is marked by a prefix. The case is not so simple for transitive verbs. While any dative arguments are still invariably marked by prefixes, how the verb's agent and patient arguments are indexed depends on their relative ranks on a grammatical hierarchy. Within this hierarchy, animate third person arguments outrank inanimate ones, and first and second person arguments outrank all third person arguments. Whether first person arguments outrank second person ones or vice versa depends upon social context (see Arskovaa honorifics).

If one argument outranks the other, it must always be indexed by suffixation. Likewise, the lower ranking argument must always be indexed using a prefix. Whether the suffix should be interpreted as an agent and the prefix as a patient or vice versa depends on the presence or absence of the suffix -pp. The absence of the suffix is known as the direct construction and signals that the suffix indexes the agent and the prefix the patient. The presence of the suffix is called the indirect construction and marks the opposite, that the suffix indexes the patient and the prefix the agent.

When a transitive verb indexes dative argument, the prefix for the dative argument is placed before the prefix for the agent or patient. For the first and second persons, these sets of prefixes are identical to one another. For the suffixes plurality is indicated by a wholly different suffixes while the prefixes simply lengthen their vowel. The necessarily plural inclusive affixes are an exception, and always have a short vowel. Associative plurals, collective nouns and singulative nouns are all marked as singular.